If you have been reading about preclinical models and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Last reviewed on 2026-06-11. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
The compound is typically described as a laboratory compound rather than a therapeutic product. Published reports have explored its role in lipid disorders, insulin sensitivity, and exercise metabolism, yet no major drug regulator has approved it for medical use. Commercial samples sold under the cardarine name may vary in purity and identity. Analytical confirmation is therefore necessary when the material is discussed in scientific or regulatory contexts. Its classification as a prohibited substance in sport further shapes how it is studied and reported.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied for its effects on lipid and glucose metabolism. It functions as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, or PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences gene expression. The molecule is not a steroid, nor is it a selective androgen receptor modulator. It is also known in research and sports literature as GW-501516 and endurobol. Early laboratory work examined its metabolic activity in cell cultures and animal models.
Activation of PPARδ changes transcription of genes involved in fatty acid transport, mitochondrial function, and skeletal muscle fuel preference. In rodent studies, pharmacological PPARδ activation was associated with increased endurance and altered body composition. These findings generated interest in performance enhancement, but species differences and study designs limit direct extrapolation to humans. Small human trials were conducted in the 2000s and later discontinued. The extent to which cardarine produces similar metabolic or performance effects in people remains an open question.
In the fitness and bodybuilding literature, cardarine is frequently discussed as an endurance agent or fat-loss compound, although such claims are not supported by robust clinical evidence. Online descriptions often mix animal data, user anecdotes, and marketing language. Researchers who study PPARδ agonists distinguish between receptor activation in controlled experiments and unsupervised use of unverified products. The latter introduces unknown purity, dose, and interactions, making reported experiences difficult to interpret scientifically.
GW501516 acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in transcription of genes related to lipid handling and energy use. Activation of PPARδ can shift skeletal muscle toward greater fatty acid oxidation in animal models, which is one reason it drew interest for metabolic disease and exercise research. The exact downstream effects depend on tissue, species, dose, and duration. Human data are sparse, so many proposed benefits remain hypotheses rather than established clinical outcomes.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic PPARδ agonist | Not a steroid or a selective androgen receptor modulator. |
| Common synonyms | Cardarine, GW501516, GW-501516, endurobol | Names vary by supplier and literature source. |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Consistent with many small-molecule research chemicals. |
| Solubility | Low in water; soluble in DMSO and ethanol | Often prepared in organic solvent for laboratory work. |
| Primary target | PPARδ (NR1C2) | Nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. |
Published literature on cardarine includes in vitro assays, rodent experiments, and a small number of human studies. Reports describe effects on exercise capacity and lipid metabolism in animals, while human evidence is sparse. Many online descriptions present the compound as a proven endurance aid, a claim not supported by regulatory approval or large clinical trials. Analytical studies focus on identifying the parent compound and its metabolites in biological samples. Important uncertainties include species differences, dose-response relationships, and the relevance of rodent tumor findings to humans.
Cardarine is the common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist. Researchers developed it to explore treatments for lipid disorders and metabolic conditions. It is not an approved medicine in any country. Early clinical work examined changes in HDL cholesterol and triglycerides, but development was discontinued after animal studies raised concerns about cancer. The compound remains available as a research chemical and appears in discussions of performance enhancement.
At the molecular level, GW501516 binds and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription. Activation shifts expression of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, energy expenditure, and lipid transport in skeletal muscle and liver. Animal studies report increased endurance and altered lipid profiles after exposure. Human data are limited to small trials and do not establish long-term safety or efficacy. PPARδ also has roles in cell proliferation, so the relationship between activation and cancer risk remains an open question.
Laboratory detection of cardarine typically involves sample preparation followed by chromatographic separation and mass spectrometric identification. Urine is the most common matrix for anti-doping tests, though blood and hair have also been explored. Methods can target the parent compound or its metabolites, depending on the expected window of detection. Reference standards are required for accurate quantification. Matrix effects and dilution can influence results, so laboratories use internal standards and validation protocols. The exact detection window varies with dose, route, and individual metabolism.
A common misconception is that cardarine has been proven safe for human use. In reality, human clinical data are limited, and long-term animal studies have raised concerns about cancer. Another misconception is that it is a supplement or vitamin-like compound. It is a synthetic research chemical with no approved medical indication. Scientific discussion often focuses on its mechanism and detection rather than therapeutic use. Regulatory and anti-doping literature treats it primarily as a prohibited substance.
Cardarine is explicitly prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency under the class of PPARδ agonists. Its presence in urine or blood samples can be detected using mass spectrometry-based methods, often liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Athletes who test positive may face sanctions, including bans from competition. The compound is also regulated as a prescription-only or unapproved drug in many countries. Enforcement varies by jurisdiction, and some regions treat it as a controlled substance. Online sales may occur despite these restrictions, creating quality and legal risks.
Most class III adenylyl cyclases are transmembrane proteins with 12 transmembrane segments. The protein is organized with 6 transmembrane segments, then the C1 cytoplasmic domain, then another 6 membrane segments, and then a second cytoplasmic domain called C2. The important parts for function are the N-terminus and the C1 and C2 regions. The C1a and C2a subdomains are homologous and form an intramolecular 'dimer' that forms the active site. In Mycobacterium tuberculosis and many other bacterial cases, the AC-III polypeptide is only half as long, comprising one 6-transmembrane domain followed by a cytoplasmic domain, but two of these form a functional homodimer that resembles the mammalian architecture with two active sites. In non-animal class III ACs, the catalytic cytoplasmic domain is seen associated with other (not necessarily transmembrane) domains. Class III adenylyl cyclase domains can be further divided into four subfamilies, termed class IIIa through IIId. Animal membrane-bound ACs belong to class IIIa.
Gary J. Patti is an American biochemist known for his research in metabolism and for using mass spectrometry to characterize biological processes. He is the Michael and Tana Powell Professor at Washington University in St. Louis. He is co-founder and Chief Scientific Officer of Panome Bio and an Associate Editor for Clinical & Translational Metabolism. Biemann Medal, 2024 ACS Midwest Award, 2023 Academy of Science Innovation Award, 2016 Edward Mallinckrodt Jr. Scholar Award, 2016 Pew Biomedical Scholars Award, 2015 Alfred P. Sloan Award, 2014 Camille Dreyfus Teacher-Scholar Award, 2014 Gary Patti publications indexed by Google Scholar
Plutonium-239 emits alpha particles to become uranium-235. As an alpha emitter, plutonium-239 is not particularly dangerous as an external radiation source, but if it is breathed in as dust it is very dangerous and carcinogenic. It has been estimated that a pound (454 grams) of plutonium inhaled as plutonium oxide nano-particles sized to enter and remain in the lungs could give cancer to two million people. However, this estimate is based on the dose-linear no-threshold model which has been criticised. Orally ingested plutonium is by far less dangerous as only a tiny fraction is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract; 800 mg would be unlikely to cause a major health risk as far as radiation is concerned. As a heavy metal, plutonium is also chemically toxic.
An international study, using modelling and literature assessment, codifies, integrates into and quantifies "safe and just Earth system boundaries" (ESBs) with the context of Earth system stability and minimization of human harm. They expand upon earlier boundary frameworks by incorporating concepts such as intra- and intergenerational justice, propose that their framework may better enable a quantitative foundation for safeguarding the global commons, and report many of the ESBs are already exceeded. Healthcare systems related results are published: large increases in medication prices via sustained decrease in their use can cause poorer disease control (8 May), widespread implementation of the particular Alzheimer's disease therapeutic solution lecanemab may increase annual U.S. Medicare spending by $2.0 to $5.1 billion (11 May), mailed HPV self-collection kits with scheduling assistance can lead to greater uptake of cervical cancer screening (11 May), cost-related medication nonadherence occurs in approximately 1 in 5 older adults in the U.S. in 2022 (18 May), and a QALY-based health economics study evaluates the cost-effectiveness of U.S. population-wide screening for CKD (23 May).
The Ghana Police Service and the Criminal Investigation Department are the main law enforcement agencies, responsible for the detection of crime, maintenance of law and order and the maintenance of internal peace and security. The Ghana Police Service has eleven specialised police units, including a Militarized police Rapid deployment force and Marine Police Unit. The Ghana Police Service operates in 12 divisions: ten covering the regions of Ghana, one assigned specifically to the seaport and industrial hub of Tema, and the twelfth being the Railways, Ports and Harbours Division. The Ghana Police Service's Marine Police Unit and Division handles issues that arise from the country's offshore oil and gas industry.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== External links == Jimenez, Francisco; López, Esmeralda; Bertolini, Marta; Alam, Majid; Chéret, Jérémy; et al. (2021). "Topical odorant application of the specific olfactory receptor OR2AT4 agonist, Sandalore, improves telogen effluvium-associated parameters". Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 20 (3): 784–791. doi:10.1111/jocd.13608. ISSN 1473-2130. PMID 32645251. Clinical trial on effect of Sandalore on hair loss.
Kenney, Padraic. 1989: Democratic Revolutions at the Cold War's End: A Brief History with Documents (2009) covers Poland, the Philippines, Chile, South Africa, Ukraine, and China Leffler, Melvyn P. For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War (2007) pp 338–450. Mann, James. The Rebellion of Ronald Reagan: A History of the End of the Cold War (2010). popular Matlock, Jack F. Autopsy on an Empire (1995) online by US ambassador to Moscow Matlock, Jack F. Reagan and Gorbachev : how the Cold War ended (2004) online Powaski, Ronald E. The Cold War: The United States and the Soviet Union, 1917–1991 (1998) Romero, Federico. "Cold War historiography at the crossroads." Cold War History 14.4 (2014): 685–703. online Shultz, George P. Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (1993), a primary source Wilson, James Graham. The Triumph of Improvisation: Gorbachev's Adaptability, Reagan's Engagement, and the End of the Cold War (2014) Wohlforth, William C. "Realism and the End of the Cold War." International Security 19.3 (1994): 91–129. online Zubok, Vladislav M. "Gorbachev and the End of the Cold War: Perspectives on History and Personality," Cold War History (2002) 2:2, 61–100, DOI: 10.1080/713999954 Zubok, Vladislav M. A failed empire: the Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (2009). online Archived 2020-09-19 at the Wayback Machine
The American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) and World Cancer Research Fund International (WCRF) have stated that there is strong evidence that consuming salted foods including salt-preserved fish and salt-preserved foods in general increases risk of stomach cancer and that the high salt content of processed meat may result in damage to the stomach mucosal lining. The American Cancer Society have stated that "stomach cancer risk is increased in people whose diets include large amounts of foods preserved by salting, such as salted fish and meat and pickled vegetables." Additionally, an excessive intake of salt has a dose-response relationship with elevated blood pressure, increasing the risk of several cardiovascular diseases.
The so-called carbamate insecticides feature the carbamate ester functional group (ROC(O)NHR'). Included in this group are aldicarb (Temik), carbofuran (Furadan), carbaryl (Sevin), ethienocarb, fenobucarb, oxamyl, and methomyl. They are synthetic analogues of the toxic alkaloid physostigmine, the study of which led to this class of insecticides. An estimated 25M kg of carbaryl were produced in 1971. These insecticides kill insects by reversibly inactivating the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE inhibition) (IRAC mode of action 1a). Fenoxycarb has a carbamate group but acts as a juvenile hormone mimic, rather than inactivating acetylcholinesterase. The insect repellent icaridin is a substituted carbamate. Besides their common use as arthropodocides/insecticides, they are also nematicidal. One such is Oxamyl. Sales have declined dramatically over recent decades.
== Mechanism of activation == Opioid receptors are a type of G protein–coupled receptor (GPCR). These receptors are distributed throughout the central nervous system and within the peripheral tissue of neural and non-neural origin. They are also located in high concentrations in the periaqueductal grey, locus coeruleus, and the rostral ventromedial medulla. The receptors consist of an extracellular amino acid N-terminus, seven trans-membrane helical loops, three extracellular loops, three intracellular loops, and an intracellular carboxyl C-terminus. Three GPCR extracellular loops provide a compartment where signalling molecules can attach to generate a response. Heterotrimeric G protein contain three different sub-units, which include an alpha (α) subunit, a beta (β) subunit, and a gamma (γ) sub-unit. The gamma and beta sub-units are permanently bound together, producing a single Gβγ sub-unit. Heterotrimeric G proteins act as 'molecular switches', which play a key role in signal transduction, because they relay information from activated receptors to appropriate effector proteins. All G protein α sub-units contain palmitate, which is a 16-carbon saturated fatty acid, that is attached near the N-terminus through a labile, reversible thioester linkage to a cysteine amino acid. It is this palmitoylation that allows the G protein to interact with membrane phospholipids due to the hydrophobic nature of the alpha sub-units. The gamma sub-unit is also lipid modified and can attach to the plasma membrane as well.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Dinosterol has been used as an indicator for dinoflagellate production in the Cariaco Basin. In such studies, it has been revealed that the accumulation of dinosterol peaks at a rate of almost 900 mg compound/cm2/yr during the Younger Dryas. Hydrogen isotope ratios in dinosterols can serve to reconstruct salinity semi-quantitatively. Some studies have revealed that certain dinoflagellates produce sterols that have the potential to serve as genera-specific biomarkers. Recent work showed that dinoflagellate genera, which formed discrete clusters in the 18S rDNA-based phylogeny, shared similar sterol compositions. This suggested that the sterol compositions of dinoflagellates are explained by the evolutionary history of this lineage.
For services to School Governance and to Children and Young People with Special Educational Needs. Nigel Gavin Begg. Founder, Aspire Technology Solutions. For services to Digital and Technology Industry Growth in North East England. Lynda Janet Suzanne Bennett. For services to Hockey in Wales. Trudy Helen Berlet. Lately Lead Midwife for Bereavement Care, Worcestershire Acute Hospitals NHS Trust. For services to Midwifery. Professor Miriam Bernard. Professor Emerita, Social Gerontology, Keele University. For services to Ageing Research and to Older People. Jane Alison Betsworth. Headteacher, Millfields Community School, London Borough of Hackney. For services to Education. Dr. Sanjay Bhandari. Chair, Kick It Out. For services to Sport. Dr. Manav Bhavsar. Lately Clinical Lead, Critical Care. For services to Healthcare, particularly during Covid-19. Helen Binns. Manager, Families First Team, Leeds City Council. For services to Vulnerable People. Amanda Jayne Bird. Senior Supply Chain Coordinator, Leidos Europe Limited. For services to Defence Logistics. Zachary Birks. Team Leader, Ministry of Defence. For services to Defence. Professor Anthony John Bjourson. Emeritus Professor of Genomics and lately Director, Northern Ireland Centre for Stratified Medicine, Ulster University. For services to Higher Education and to Research. Anthony Grant Bloom. Chairman, Brighton and Hove Albion Football Club. For services to Association Football and to the community in Brighton. Anthony John Bloxham.
=== Mass spectrometry === Previously, many studies used Mass Spectrometry (MS) in different fragmentation modes to detect AMPylated peptides. In responses to the distinctive fragmentation techniques, AMPylated protein sequences disintegrated at different parts of AMP. While electron transfer dissociation (ETD) creates minimum fragments and less complicated spectra, collision-induced dissociation (CID) and high-energy collision (HCD) fragmentation generate characteristic ions suitable for AMPylated proteins identification by generating multiple AMP fragments. Due to AMP's stability, peptide fragmentation spectra is easy to read manually or with search engines.
National government representatives did sit on the board, but had little influence; one European representative described the environment in the mid-2010s as "highly intimidating". A 2016 funding-allocation analysis of a sample of Gavi grants found that just over half the money went to purchasing drugs, equipment, supplies, and facilities (and 3% on bonuses and incentive pay). These are short-term funding activities which the WHO does not consider HSS. The proportions were higher in less-developed healthcare systems. There was no spending on operational research, improving use of existing resources, or developing national drug and vaccine policies. In some grants, HSS funds were mostly spent on day-to-day operational costs, with no exit plan for the funding. Gavi subsequently (before 2018) shifted HSS aid to focus more on sustainability and the principles of the Paris Declaration for Aid Effectiveness.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic PPARδ agonist. It is not a steroid or a selective androgen receptor modulator. It was developed and studied as a research compound for metabolic pathways.
It binds to and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates genes related to fatty acid oxidation and energy use. This activation alters transcription in tissues such as skeletal muscle and liver. The full range of downstream effects in humans is not fully established.
No, cardarine is not known to occur naturally in plants, animals, or humans. It is a synthetic molecule produced for laboratory research. Products labeled as cardarine should therefore be treated as manufactured chemicals with variable purity.
It binds and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences gene expression related to fatty acid metabolism and energy balance. This mechanism has been studied mainly in animals and cell models, not established as a safe human therapy.