A practical reference on PPARδ agonist: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
This page was last updated on 2026-08-01 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
GW501516 acts on PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that helps regulate fatty acid oxidation and energy homeostasis. In animal studies, activation of this receptor was associated with increased endurance and changes in lipid metabolism. Human trials examined effects on blood lipids and other metabolic markers, but the compound did not advance to approval. Rodent studies later reported tumors in multiple tissues at doses used in those experiments. Whether those findings translate to human risk remains uncertain, and the clinical relevance of the animal data is still debated.
Regulatory bodies treat GW501516 as a prohibited substance in competitive sport. The World Anti-Doping Agency added it to the prohibited list, and it falls under classes covering metabolic modulators and hormone-related agents. It is not approved by drug regulators for human use, and it is not a lawful dietary supplement. Products sold under the cardarine name may contain unlisted ingredients or different compounds. Because no approved product exists, quality and identity are not guaranteed by pharmaceutical manufacturing standards.
Safety discussions about cardarine frequently cite rodent carcinogenicity findings reported in the 2000s. In those studies, treated animals developed tumors at multiple sites, leading sponsors to discontinue clinical development. The relevance of these findings to humans has not been resolved, but they are a major reason the compound is not approved. Current literature emphasizes uncertainty about long-term effects and the risks of unregulated use. Regulators and health agencies have not established a safe human exposure level.
Cardarine is a synthetic compound also known as GW501516, GW-501516, and sometimes endurobol. It was developed as a selective agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not become a marketed human medicine. In regulatory and anti-doping contexts, it is treated as a prohibited substance rather than a licensed medicine.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common name | Cardarine | Common internet and media name. |
| Research code | GW501516 | Also written GW-1516. |
| Drug class | PPARδ agonist | Not a selective androgen receptor modulator. |
| Development status | Discontinued | Clinical development halted after rodent cancer findings. |
| Regulatory status | Prohibited in sport | Listed by WADA; not approved as medicine. |
Anti-doping laboratories identify GW501516 and related metabolites using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be analyzed. The method targets the parent compound and phase I and phase II metabolites, which extend the detection window. Because the substance is prohibited at all times, athletes can be tested outside competition. Detection limits and windows depend on the assay, sample type, and individual metabolism.
Cardarine is frequently described as a fat-burning or endurance-enhancing supplement, but these claims exceed the available evidence. The compound is not a hormone, steroid, or selective androgen receptor modulator. Research articles discuss it as a tool compound for studying PPARδ biology, while anti-doping literature focuses on its abuse and detection. Quality of unapproved products is uncertain, and independent analyses have found impurities or incorrect labeling. Open questions include whether human cancer risk resembles that seen in rodents and how often non-athletes use the substance.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, also GW-1516, a synthetic compound developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) agonist. It belongs to a class of agents that modulate gene transcription related to lipid and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical and early clinical research for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not progress to approved therapeutic use. Its name appears in fitness and sports contexts despite not being approved as a drug.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, lipid transport, and energy homeostasis. GW501516 binds and activates this receptor with high selectivity relative to PPARα and PPARγ in laboratory assays. Activation alters expression of target genes in skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue in animal models. The exact clinical consequences of these changes in humans remain incompletely characterized, and observed effects in animals do not establish therapeutic benefit or safety.
Cardarine is prohibited in competitive sport under the World Anti-Doping Agency code, where it is classified as a metabolic modulator. It is not approved as a prescription medicine in the United States, European Union, or other major markets. Regulatory action has focused on its presence in sports and in products marketed as research chemicals. Because it has no accepted medical indication, supply is often unregulated. This status creates legal and safety uncertainties for anyone who encounters the substance.
Anti-doping laboratories detect GW501516 and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be used in some programs. Detection depends on factors such as dose, timing, metabolism, and the sensitivity of the assay. Published methods describe limits of detection in the low nanogram per milliliter range for related compounds. Exact detection windows are not fixed for all situations and remain an area of ongoing study.
Products sold as cardarine have been found to contain incorrect compounds, variable amounts, or no active ingredient at all. Independent testing is required to verify identity and purity. Common analytical approaches include high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance for structural confirmation. These methods can distinguish GW501516 from related PPAR agonists and from unrelated steroids. For regulators and researchers, such verification is central to interpreting both biological results and adverse event reports.
=== Characteristics === Unintentional weight loss may result from loss of body fats, loss of body fluids, muscle atrophy, or a combination of these. It is generally regarded as a medical problem when at least 10% of a person's body weight has been lost in six months or 5% in the last month. Another criterion used for assessing weight that is too low is the body mass index (BMI). However, even lesser amounts of weight loss can be a cause for serious concern in a frail elderly person. Unintentional weight loss can occur because of an inadequately nutritious diet relative to a person's energy needs (generally called malnutrition). Disease processes, changes in metabolism, hormonal changes, medications or other treatments, disease- or treatment-related dietary changes, or reduced appetite associated with a disease or treatment can also cause unintentional weight loss. Poor nutrient utilization can lead to weight loss, and can be caused by fistulae in the gastrointestinal tract, diarrhea, drug-nutrient interaction, enzyme depletion and muscle atrophy. Continuing weight loss may deteriorate into wasting, a vaguely defined condition called cachexia. Cachexia differs from starvation in part because it involves a systemic inflammatory response. It is associated with poorer outcomes. In the advanced stages of progressive disease, metabolism can change so that they lose weight even when they are getting what is normally regarded as adequate nutrition and the body cannot compensate.
=== Cytochrome P450 inhibitors and inducers === Trazodone is metabolized by several liver enzymes, including CYP3A4, CYP2D6, and CYP1A2. Its active metabolite meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (mCPP) is known to be formed by CYP3A4 and metabolized by CYP2D6. Inhibition or induction of the aforementioned enzymes by various other substances may alter the metabolism of trazodone or mCPP, leading to increased or decreased blood concentrations. The enzymes in question are known to be inhibited and induced by many medications, herbs, and foods, and as such, trazodone may interact with these substances. Potent CYP3A4 inhibitors such as clarithromycin, erythromycin, fluvoxamine, grapefruit juice, ketoconazole, and ritonavir may lead to increased concentrations of trazodone and decreased concentrations of mCPP, while CYP3A4 inducers like carbamazepine, enzalutamide, phenytoin, phenobarbital, and St. John's wort may result in decreased trazodone concentrations and increased mCPP concentrations. CYP2D6 inhibitors may result in increased concentrations of both trazodone and mCPP, while CYP2D6 inducers may decrease their concentrations. Examples of potent CYP2D6 inhibitors include bupropion, cannabidiol, duloxetine, fluoxetine, paroxetine, quinidine, and ritonavir, while CYP2D6 inducers include dexamethasone, glutethimide, and haloperidol. CYP1A2 inhibitors may increase trazodone concentrations, while CYP1A2 inducers may decrease trazodone concentrations.
In 1970, she established what was for nearly a decade the only protein crystallography laboratory in Israel. Then, from 1979 to 1984 she was a group leader with Heinz-Günter Wittmann at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin. She was a visiting professor at the University of Chicago in 1977–78. She headed a Max-Planck Institute Research Unit at DESY in Hamburg, Germany (1986–2004) in parallel to her research activities at the Weizmann Institute. She focused on the mechanisms underlying protein biosynthesis, by ribosomal crystallography, a research line she pioneered over 20 years ago despite considerable skepticism of the international scientific community. Ribosomes translate RNA into protein and because they have slightly different structures in microbes, when compared to eukaryotes, such as human cells, they are often a target for antibiotics. In 1993, she visualized the path taken by the nascent proteins, namely the ribosomal tunnel, and recently revealed the dynamics elements enabling its involvement in elongation arrest, gating, intra-cellular regulation and nascent chain trafficking into their folding space. In 2000 and 2001, she determined the complete high-resolution structures of both ribosomal subunits and discovered within the otherwise asymmetric ribosome, the universal symmetrical region that provides the framework and navigates the process of polypeptide polymerization.
3 BrO− ⇌ 2 Br− + BrO3− (K = 1015) Bromous acids and bromites are very unstable, although the strontium and barium bromites are known. More important are the bromates, which are prepared on a small scale by oxidation of bromide by aqueous hypochlorite, and are strong oxidising agents. Unlike chlorates, which very slowly disproportionate to chloride and perchlorate, the bromate anion is stable to disproportionation in both acidic and aqueous solutions. Bromic acid is a strong acid. Bromides and bromates may comproportionate to bromine as follows:
==== Covalent bonding ==== The enzyme is bound covalently to an insoluble support (such as silica gel or macroporous polymer beads with epoxide groups). This approach provides the strongest enzyme/support interaction, and so the lowest protein leakage during catalysis. The activity of the enzyme being covalently bound is dependent on several factors including: shape, and size of carrier material, coupling method type, the composition and coupling special conditions of carrier material. Affinity-tag binding: is an immobilization method combining physical, and chemical methods where enzymes may be immobilized to a surface, e.g. in a porous material, using non-covalent or covalent Protein tags. This technology has been established for protein purification purposes. This technique is the generally applicable, and can be performed without prior enzyme purification with a pure preparation as the result. Porous glass and derivatives thereof are used, where the porous surface can be adapted in terms of hydrophobicity to suit the enzyme in question.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
To a first approximation, the non-polar phase in such experiments is usually dominated by the un-ionized form of the solute, which is electrically neutral, though this may not be true for the aqueous phase. To measure the partition coefficient of ionizable solutes, the pH of the aqueous phase is adjusted such that the predominant form of the compound in solution is the un-ionized, or its measurement at another pH of interest requires consideration of all species, un-ionized and ionized (see following). A corresponding partition coefficient for ionizable compounds, abbreviated log P I, is derived for cases where there are dominant ionized forms of the molecule, such that one must consider partition of all forms, ionized and un-ionized, between the two phases (as well as the interaction of the two equilibria, partition and ionization). M is used to indicate the number of ionized forms; for the I-th form (I = 1, 2, ... , M) the logarithm of the corresponding partition coefficient,
=== Adrenal === Angiotensin II acts on the adrenal cortex, causing it to release aldosterone, a hormone that causes the kidneys to retain sodium and lose potassium. Elevated plasma angiotensin II levels are responsible for the elevated aldosterone levels present during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle.
Together with supplemental equations (for example, conservation of mass) and well-formulated boundary conditions, the Navier–Stokes equations seem to model fluid motion accurately; even turbulent flows seem (on average) to agree with real world observations. The Navier–Stokes equations assume that the fluid being studied is a continuum (it is infinitely divisible and not composed of particles such as atoms or molecules), and is not moving at relativistic velocities. At very small scales or under extreme conditions, real fluids made out of discrete molecules will produce results different from the continuous fluids modeled by the Navier–Stokes equations. For example, capillarity of internal layers in fluids appears for flow with high gradients. For large Knudsen number of the problem, the Boltzmann equation may be a suitable replacement. Failing that, one may have to resort to molecular dynamics or various hybrid methods. Another limitation is simply the complicated nature of the equations. Time-tested formulations exist for common fluid families, but the application of the Navier–Stokes equations to less common families tends to result in very complicated formulations and often to open research problems. For this reason, these equations are usually written for Newtonian fluids where the viscosity model is linear; truly general models for the flow of other kinds of fluids (such as blood) do not exist.
Greenland (territory of Denmark): Prime Minister Jens-Frederik Nielsen firmly stated that it would be "not respectful" to compare the democratic institutions in Greenland to those in Venezuela, stating that the reasons for another "overnight takeover" were not the same, and called on more direct communication to be had with the United States amid the proposed US acquisition of the territory. Honduras: Outgoing President Xiomara Castro strongly condemned what she described as an act of kidnapping by the United States, calling the events "an affront to the sovereignty and independence of the peoples of Latin America and the Caribbean." President Castro declared that Honduras stands "in solidarity with the brave people of Venezuela, and with President Nicolás Maduro and his wife". Jamaica: As a member of the Bureau of the Conference of Heads of Government of the Caribbean Community, Jamaica joined a statement issued following the U.S. military action that reaffirmed the principles of international law, state sovereignty and territorial integrity, and called for peaceful dialogue through diplomatic channels. Mexico: President Claudia Sheinbaum "strongly condemns and rejects" the US military action, stating that the strikes breached the United Nations Charter. She urged the US to comply with international law and end "all acts of aggression" against the Venezuelan government and people. Nicaragua: The Nicaraguan government condemned the strikes, claiming that peace in Venezuela was "gravely hurt" and called for Maduro's release.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The two substrates of this enzyme are D-xylose, shown in its open-chain aldehydo form, and oxidised nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+). Its 3 products are D-xylono-1,5-lactone, reduced NADH, and a proton. This enzyme belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically those acting on the CH-OH group of donor with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor. The systematic name of this enzyme class is D-xylose:NAD+ 1-oxidoreductase. Other names in common use include NAD+-D-xylose dehydrogenase, D-xylose dehydrogenase, and (NAD+)-linked D-xylose dehydrogenase. This enzyme participates in pentose and glucuronate interconversions.
After Ceaușescu was summarily executed, the National Salvation Front (FSN) quickly took power, promising free and fair elections within five months. Elected in a landslide the following May, the FSN reconstituted as a political party, installed a series of economic and democratic reforms, with further social policy changes being implemented by later governments. From that point on, Romania has become far more integrated with the West. Romania became a member of NATO and the European Union in 2004 and 2007, respectively.
=== Conflict === Channel conflict can arise when one intermediary's actions prevent another intermediary from achieving their objectives. Vertical channel conflict occurs between the levels within a channel, and horizontal channel conflict occurs between intermediaries at the same level within a channel. Channel conflict is a perennial problem. There are risks that a powerful channel member may coordinate the interests of the channel for personal gain. Territories are often seen as a source of conflict, sometimes because boundaries are only loosely defined.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Cardarine is a PPARδ agonist, while selective androgen receptor modulators act on androgen receptors. The two classes differ in receptor target and downstream effects.
Preclinical rodent studies reported cancers, including liver and bladder tumors, at tested doses. The human relevance of those findings is uncertain, but development was discontinued. No approved human product resulted.
No. It remains an investigational compound without approved therapeutic labeling. Sports regulators prohibit its use, and health agencies have warned against consuming it.
Cardarine is an investigational synthetic compound that acts as a PPARδ agonist. It is also known as GW501516 and has been studied mainly in preclinical research. It is not an approved medicine.